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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS IN IRAN AND OTHER REGIONAL COUNTRIES
Tehran Times
Political Desk
On Line: 01 March 2012 15:55
In Print: Friday 02 March 2012
On the eve of the 9th parliamentary election to elect members of the
Islamic Consultative â~@~NAssembly (Majlis)
The upcoming parliamentary election in Iran, which is scheduled to be
held on â~@~NMarch 2, is the 30th time in the history of the Islamic
Revolution that the people â~@~Nhave cast their votes to determine
their own destiny. â~@~N
Over the past 33 years, the Islamic system has successfully held 29
elections, namely, 10 presidential elections, eight parliamentary
elections, four â~@~Nelections to select members of the Assembly
of Experts, three â~@~Nelections to select the members of Islamic
Councils in the cities and â~@~Nvillages, two referendums on the
Constitution, one election to designate â~@~Nconstitutional experts,
and one referendum to determine the political system of â~@~Nthe
country. Thus, the parliamentary election on March 2 will be the
â~@~Nâ~@~N30th democratic election held since the victory of the
Islamic Revolution of Iran in â~@~Nâ~@~N1979. â~@~N
Position of Majlis
The Majlis is the main pillar of the legislative branch in Iran.
Legislation â~@~Nratified by the Majlis must be approved by the
Guardian Council, and then the administration and the Judiciary
are notified.
The parliament is totally â~@~Nindependent of other branches
of government, and no one has the right to â~@~Ndissolve the
parliament. â~@~N
As stipulated in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
in articles 62 and 63, Majlis Shoraye Eslami (Islamic Parliament of
Iran) is constituted by the people's â~@~Nrepresentatives elected
directly and by secret ballot. The term of membership of â~@~Nthe
Islamic parliament of Iran is four years. The election for each term
must take â~@~Nplace before the end of the preceding term, so that
the country is never without â~@~Na parliament. â~@~N
The parliament can dismiss cabinet ministers through no-confidence
â~@~Nvotes and can impeach the president for misconduct in office.â~@~N
The Zoroastrians and Jews are each represented by one MP. The
â~@~NAssyrian and Chaldean Christians jointly elect one representative,
and â~@~NArmenian Christians in the north and the south each
elect one â~@~Nrepresentative. According to the provisions of the
Constitution, the Islamic parliament of Iran is currently composed
of 290 members.â~@~N
Statistics
Over 48,288,799 Iranian voters are eligible to cast their ballots in
the 9th â~@~Nparliamentary election. Out of this figure, 3,960,000
voters will be eligible to cast ballots â~@~Nfor the first time. Of the
about 75 million people of Iran, all men and women over â~@~Nâ~@~N18
years of age having a valid ID card are eligible to vote, and there is
no â~@~Nother precondition such as having special ballot cards. â~@~N
During the registration period, 5,405 people signed up at the Interior
Ministry to â~@~Nstand as candidates, and 3,444 of them were approved
to compete as candidates for â~@~N 290 seats in the Majlis. Iran's
Guardian Council has taken into consideration â~@~Nall parties and
groups in the vetting of candidates. Nearly 10 percent of the vetted
â~@~Ncandidates are women. Based on a bill ratified in the current
Majlis and â~@~Nendorsed by the Guardian Council, the candidates
should have a master's degree or a qualification that is equivalent
to a master's degree.
The candidates must be over 30 years old and not older than 74. The
number of polling â~@~Nstations in Iran is 47,665. Campaigning for
the parliamentary election officially started on February 23 and
ended at 8:00 on March 1.â~@~N
The voter turnout in the previous eight parliamentary elections ranged
between 51 to 71 percent. The â~@~NInterior Ministry's own figures
indicated a national turnout of 52 percent and more â~@~Nthan 30
percent in Tehran in the parliamentary election of 2008, which is
â~@~Nroughly equivalent to the 2004 turnout. An average of 8 to 16
female candidates have been â~@~Nselected by voters in the previous
parliamentary elections.â~@~N
Election campaign in Tehran
According to the figures released by Tehran's provincial office,
5,400,000 â~@~Npeople are eligible to vote and 699 candidates will
compete in Tehran Province. â~@~NIn the capital city of Tehran, which
is the political nerve center of the â~@~Ncountry and the largest
constituency, 555 candidates will compete for 30 â~@~Nparliament
seats. â~@~N
Many of the candidates in Tehran have come to the election without any
â~@~Naffiliation to political groups or parties. However, Iran's two
major â~@~Npolitical parties, principlists and reformists, have both
formed coalitions â~@~Nto gain more votes in the upcoming election. The
main lists released by the â~@~Nprinciplist bloc are the United Front
of Principlists, the Resistance Front, the Voice â~@~Nof the Nation,
the Resilience Front, the Insight and Islamic Awakening Front, and
the Supporters â~@~Nof Velayat. Reformists have also formed their
coalitions, including Mardomsalari (Democracy) Front, the Labor
Coalition, and the Popular â~@~NFront of Reformists. â~@~N
Candidates are allowed to be on various lists, and there are no
restrictions in this regard according to the law. In the previous
rounds, most of the selected representatives for the Tehran
constituency were members of political coalitions, and independent
candidates had little chance to win parliamentary seats.
Elections in other regional countries
The Islamic Republic of Iran is located in a region where most of
the countries are either politically unable to hold elections or
are ruled by monarchs and ruling families. Parliaments in these
countries are mostly symbolic and have no impact on the political
life of the people. A short review of election processes in these
countries helps us better understand the importance of democratic
structures in the region.
Saudi Arabia
The country has been ruled by an absolute monarchy since 1932, and
there are no political parties, elected parliaments, or referendums.
Saudi Arabia is under the full control of the Al Saud family and
remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever
been held since its creation. In 1992, King Fahd established the
first Consultative Council. The only function of the council is to
consult the King on national security and military issues. Members
of the council are directly appointed by the King every four years.
Since 2005, people have been invited to cast their ballots to decide
on 50 percent of the seats of local councils. Only 1,080,000 voters
participated in the second round of the elections in 2011. According
to the King's decree, women will have the right to participate in
the third round of the elections in 2015. The local councils have no
executive power in Saudi Arabia, and their sole function is to give
recommendations to the municipalities.
The United Arab Emirates
The UAE's political system, which is composed of several intricately
connected governing bodies, is based on its 1971 Constitution. As a
federation of seven monarchies, whose rulers retain absolute power
within their emirates, but with a UAE president, it is neither a
constitutional monarchy nor a republic.
The legislature is the Federal National Council, which consists of 40
members drawn from all the emirates. Half are appointed by the rulers
of the constituent emirates and the other half are indirectly elected
to serve two-year terms. The first indirect elections took place in
2006. The council scrutinizes and amends proposed legislation but
cannot prevent it from becoming law.
The second round of elections was held in 2011 in the wake of the
recent developments in the Arab world, in which only 130,000 people
of the 8 million eligible voters were selected by the government to
participate in the election. Only one third of the selected people
cast ballots.
Qatar
Qatar has an unelected, monarchic, emirate-type government. There
are no democratic institutions or elections, and power is assumed
on a hereditary basis. The discretionary system of law is totally
controlled by the Emir. The country has a parliament that is composed
of ordinary citizens representing every populated area in Qatar.
The current Qatari parliament is unelected in nature.
In the wake of the recent developments in the Arab world, the
government aims to project a more pious image ahead of the country's
first election of a royal advisory body in 2013.
Bahrain
Bahrain is a Constitutional monarchy headed by the King. Based on
the Constitution, three branches of government are supposed to act
independently. However, they are under the direct control of the King.
Bahrain has a bicameral National Assembly (al-Jamiyah al-Watani)
consisting of the Shura Council (Majlis Al-Shura) with 40 seats and
the Council of Representatives (Majlis Al-Nuwab) with 40 seats. The 40
members of the Shura Council are appointed by the King. In the Council
of Representatives, the 40 members are elected by absolute majority
vote in single-member constituencies to serve four-year terms. The
Shura Council has the authority to revoke the ratifications of the
Council of Representatives.
So far, four rounds of elections have been held in Bahrain, in 1973,
2002, 2006, 2010. However, based on the election law, the majority
Shia population can only have 18 seats in the parliament. The people
again protested against this during the recent popular uprising,
and 18 Shia lawmakers resigned their posts. The election was also
boycotted by the people.
Kuwait
Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy and has the oldest directly
elected parliament among the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.
Legislative power is vested in the Emir and the National Assembly
in accordance with the Constitution. The Emir of Kuwait can dissolve
the National Assembly and call a national election, or, in cases of
national emergency, can dismiss the National Assembly outright and
assume supreme authority over the country.
The National Assembly consists of 50 elected members, who are chosen
in elections held every four years. Any amendment to the Constitution
can be proposed by the Emir, but it needs to be approved by more
than two-thirds of the members of the National Assembly before being
implemented.
There have been several conflicts between the emir, the government,
and the National Assembly over various policies. The National Assembly
was suspended from 1976 to 1981, from 1986 to 1991, and from May 1999
to July 1999, due to irresolvable conflicts between some members of
the government and the Assembly. The Assembly was dissolved again
in May 2009 by the emir, leading to the resignation of the prime
minister. Nationwide elections were held on May 16, 2009.
Until 2005, women had no right to participate in the parliamentary
elections. In the elections on May 16, 2009, 16 female candidates
contested for 50 seats for a four-year term. Four female candidates
won seats and became Kuwait's first female lawmakers.
Oman
Oman is an absolute monarchy. The head of state and government is the
hereditary sultan, Qaboos bin Said Al Said. He rose to power after
overthrowing his father, Said bin Taimur, in a palace coup in 1970.
In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected council, the
Consultative Assembly of Oman. It had advisory roles until 2011,
when Sultan Qaboos decided to give legislative powers to the council,
allowing the newly elected parliament to question ministers, propose
laws, and suggest changes to government regulations.
The Council of Oman is a bicameral parliament, made up of members of
the State Council and Consultation Council as stipulated in Article
58 of the Basic Law of the State. It is considered to be the main
parliament in Oman. It assists the government in drawing up the
general policies of the state. The Council meets, at the request of
Sultan Qaboos, to study and discuss matters raised by him, making
all its decisions on the basis of a majority vote. Sultan Qaboos
addresses all the members of this Council on an annual basis. There
are 15 women members (14 of whom are in the State Council) among the
167 members of the parliament.
Oman's State Consultative Council, established in 1981, consists
of 55 appointed representatives of government, the private sector,
and regional interests.
Until recent years, only a limited number of citizens were allowed
to participate in elections. There is no active political party in
the country.
Jordan
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with an
appointed government. The reigning monarch is the chief executive
and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The King exercises
his executive authority through the prime minister and the Council
of Ministers or cabinet. The King signs and executes all laws.
The parliament consists of two Chambers: The Chamber of Deputies
(Majlis al-Nuwab) and the Senate (Majlis al-Ayan, literally Assembly
of Notables). The Senate has 60 senators, all of whom are directly
appointed by the King, while the Chamber of Deputies/House of
Representatives has 120 elected members representing 12 constituencies.
The Constitution does not provide a strong system of checks and
balances within which the Jordanian parliament can assert its role
in relationship to the monarch. During the suspension of parliament
between 2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II's power was
demonstrated with the passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of these
laws dealt with election law and were seen to reduce the power of
parliament.
Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the King and
can be reappointed.
Syria
The recent amendment to the Constitution of Syria provides a better
position for parliament in the country. The People's Council (Majlis
al-Sha'ab) is Syria's legislative authority. It has 250 members
elected for a four-year term in 15 multi-seat constituencies. The
presidential candidate is appointed by the parliament and needs to
be confirmed for a seven-year term in a referendum.
Parliamentary elections were held in Syria on April 22, 2007.
According to results released on April 26, 2007, the National
Progressive Front won 169 seats, while independents won the other 81
seats. Turnout was 56.12 percent of the 11.96 million eligible voters,
and 30 female candidates were elected, exactly as many as in 2003.
A constitutional referendum was held in Syria on February 26, 2012.
The new Constitution would set a limit of two seven-year terms for
future presidents and also removed Article 8 of the Constitution of
Syria, which stated, "The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party leads the state
and society." The text eliminates the Ba'ath party monopoly over the
political life of Syria.
Iraq
In 2003, Saddam Hussein was forcibly removed from power during the
Iraq war. In March 2004, a governing council set up by the Coalition
Provisional Authority signed an interim constitution, which called
for the election of a transitional National Assembly no later than
the end of January 2005.
Elections for the transitional National Assembly (Al
Jamiya-Al-Wataniya) took place on January 30, 2005. The 275-member
National Assembly was a parliament created under the Transitional
Law during the occupation of Iraq. It was the first free election in
Iraq's history, with a fair representation of all groups.
The new law has increased the size of the council from 275 to 325
members, equal to one seat per 100,000 citizens, as stipulated in
the Constitution of Iraq.
Under the permanent Constitution approved on October 15, 2005,
legislative authority is vested in two bodies, the Council of
Representatives and the Council of Union.
The Council of Representatives of Iraq has the same name in Arabic
(Majlis al-Nuwab) as the main elected body of representatives in Iraq.
It is currently composed of 325 seats and meets in Baghdad inside
the International Zone (Green Zone).
The Council of Union or Federation Council (Majlis al-Ittihad)
will consist of representatives from Iraq's regions. Its precise
composition and responsibilities are not defined in the Constitution
and will be determined by the Council of Representatives.
Other countries of the region
In other countries neighboring Iran, such as Afghanistan, elections
have been held under the control of the occupation forces, and the
tightened security measures adopted by officials have prevented sound
elections from being held for parliament.
Pakistan and Turkey both have powerful parliaments, and there is
always considerable competition for parliamentary seats in these
countries. However, the presidents of the two countries have the
authority to dissolve parliament and military officials often interfere
in politics.
The latest developments in the Arab world and the popular uprisings
in certain countries, such as Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya have paved
the way for greater participation by the people and political parties
in politics and the establishment of parliaments, which can have a
positive impact on the destiny of the people.
From: Baghdasarian
Tehran Times
Political Desk
On Line: 01 March 2012 15:55
In Print: Friday 02 March 2012
On the eve of the 9th parliamentary election to elect members of the
Islamic Consultative â~@~NAssembly (Majlis)
The upcoming parliamentary election in Iran, which is scheduled to be
held on â~@~NMarch 2, is the 30th time in the history of the Islamic
Revolution that the people â~@~Nhave cast their votes to determine
their own destiny. â~@~N
Over the past 33 years, the Islamic system has successfully held 29
elections, namely, 10 presidential elections, eight parliamentary
elections, four â~@~Nelections to select members of the Assembly
of Experts, three â~@~Nelections to select the members of Islamic
Councils in the cities and â~@~Nvillages, two referendums on the
Constitution, one election to designate â~@~Nconstitutional experts,
and one referendum to determine the political system of â~@~Nthe
country. Thus, the parliamentary election on March 2 will be the
â~@~Nâ~@~N30th democratic election held since the victory of the
Islamic Revolution of Iran in â~@~Nâ~@~N1979. â~@~N
Position of Majlis
The Majlis is the main pillar of the legislative branch in Iran.
Legislation â~@~Nratified by the Majlis must be approved by the
Guardian Council, and then the administration and the Judiciary
are notified.
The parliament is totally â~@~Nindependent of other branches
of government, and no one has the right to â~@~Ndissolve the
parliament. â~@~N
As stipulated in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
in articles 62 and 63, Majlis Shoraye Eslami (Islamic Parliament of
Iran) is constituted by the people's â~@~Nrepresentatives elected
directly and by secret ballot. The term of membership of â~@~Nthe
Islamic parliament of Iran is four years. The election for each term
must take â~@~Nplace before the end of the preceding term, so that
the country is never without â~@~Na parliament. â~@~N
The parliament can dismiss cabinet ministers through no-confidence
â~@~Nvotes and can impeach the president for misconduct in office.â~@~N
The Zoroastrians and Jews are each represented by one MP. The
â~@~NAssyrian and Chaldean Christians jointly elect one representative,
and â~@~NArmenian Christians in the north and the south each
elect one â~@~Nrepresentative. According to the provisions of the
Constitution, the Islamic parliament of Iran is currently composed
of 290 members.â~@~N
Statistics
Over 48,288,799 Iranian voters are eligible to cast their ballots in
the 9th â~@~Nparliamentary election. Out of this figure, 3,960,000
voters will be eligible to cast ballots â~@~Nfor the first time. Of the
about 75 million people of Iran, all men and women over â~@~Nâ~@~N18
years of age having a valid ID card are eligible to vote, and there is
no â~@~Nother precondition such as having special ballot cards. â~@~N
During the registration period, 5,405 people signed up at the Interior
Ministry to â~@~Nstand as candidates, and 3,444 of them were approved
to compete as candidates for â~@~N 290 seats in the Majlis. Iran's
Guardian Council has taken into consideration â~@~Nall parties and
groups in the vetting of candidates. Nearly 10 percent of the vetted
â~@~Ncandidates are women. Based on a bill ratified in the current
Majlis and â~@~Nendorsed by the Guardian Council, the candidates
should have a master's degree or a qualification that is equivalent
to a master's degree.
The candidates must be over 30 years old and not older than 74. The
number of polling â~@~Nstations in Iran is 47,665. Campaigning for
the parliamentary election officially started on February 23 and
ended at 8:00 on March 1.â~@~N
The voter turnout in the previous eight parliamentary elections ranged
between 51 to 71 percent. The â~@~NInterior Ministry's own figures
indicated a national turnout of 52 percent and more â~@~Nthan 30
percent in Tehran in the parliamentary election of 2008, which is
â~@~Nroughly equivalent to the 2004 turnout. An average of 8 to 16
female candidates have been â~@~Nselected by voters in the previous
parliamentary elections.â~@~N
Election campaign in Tehran
According to the figures released by Tehran's provincial office,
5,400,000 â~@~Npeople are eligible to vote and 699 candidates will
compete in Tehran Province. â~@~NIn the capital city of Tehran, which
is the political nerve center of the â~@~Ncountry and the largest
constituency, 555 candidates will compete for 30 â~@~Nparliament
seats. â~@~N
Many of the candidates in Tehran have come to the election without any
â~@~Naffiliation to political groups or parties. However, Iran's two
major â~@~Npolitical parties, principlists and reformists, have both
formed coalitions â~@~Nto gain more votes in the upcoming election. The
main lists released by the â~@~Nprinciplist bloc are the United Front
of Principlists, the Resistance Front, the Voice â~@~Nof the Nation,
the Resilience Front, the Insight and Islamic Awakening Front, and
the Supporters â~@~Nof Velayat. Reformists have also formed their
coalitions, including Mardomsalari (Democracy) Front, the Labor
Coalition, and the Popular â~@~NFront of Reformists. â~@~N
Candidates are allowed to be on various lists, and there are no
restrictions in this regard according to the law. In the previous
rounds, most of the selected representatives for the Tehran
constituency were members of political coalitions, and independent
candidates had little chance to win parliamentary seats.
Elections in other regional countries
The Islamic Republic of Iran is located in a region where most of
the countries are either politically unable to hold elections or
are ruled by monarchs and ruling families. Parliaments in these
countries are mostly symbolic and have no impact on the political
life of the people. A short review of election processes in these
countries helps us better understand the importance of democratic
structures in the region.
Saudi Arabia
The country has been ruled by an absolute monarchy since 1932, and
there are no political parties, elected parliaments, or referendums.
Saudi Arabia is under the full control of the Al Saud family and
remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever
been held since its creation. In 1992, King Fahd established the
first Consultative Council. The only function of the council is to
consult the King on national security and military issues. Members
of the council are directly appointed by the King every four years.
Since 2005, people have been invited to cast their ballots to decide
on 50 percent of the seats of local councils. Only 1,080,000 voters
participated in the second round of the elections in 2011. According
to the King's decree, women will have the right to participate in
the third round of the elections in 2015. The local councils have no
executive power in Saudi Arabia, and their sole function is to give
recommendations to the municipalities.
The United Arab Emirates
The UAE's political system, which is composed of several intricately
connected governing bodies, is based on its 1971 Constitution. As a
federation of seven monarchies, whose rulers retain absolute power
within their emirates, but with a UAE president, it is neither a
constitutional monarchy nor a republic.
The legislature is the Federal National Council, which consists of 40
members drawn from all the emirates. Half are appointed by the rulers
of the constituent emirates and the other half are indirectly elected
to serve two-year terms. The first indirect elections took place in
2006. The council scrutinizes and amends proposed legislation but
cannot prevent it from becoming law.
The second round of elections was held in 2011 in the wake of the
recent developments in the Arab world, in which only 130,000 people
of the 8 million eligible voters were selected by the government to
participate in the election. Only one third of the selected people
cast ballots.
Qatar
Qatar has an unelected, monarchic, emirate-type government. There
are no democratic institutions or elections, and power is assumed
on a hereditary basis. The discretionary system of law is totally
controlled by the Emir. The country has a parliament that is composed
of ordinary citizens representing every populated area in Qatar.
The current Qatari parliament is unelected in nature.
In the wake of the recent developments in the Arab world, the
government aims to project a more pious image ahead of the country's
first election of a royal advisory body in 2013.
Bahrain
Bahrain is a Constitutional monarchy headed by the King. Based on
the Constitution, three branches of government are supposed to act
independently. However, they are under the direct control of the King.
Bahrain has a bicameral National Assembly (al-Jamiyah al-Watani)
consisting of the Shura Council (Majlis Al-Shura) with 40 seats and
the Council of Representatives (Majlis Al-Nuwab) with 40 seats. The 40
members of the Shura Council are appointed by the King. In the Council
of Representatives, the 40 members are elected by absolute majority
vote in single-member constituencies to serve four-year terms. The
Shura Council has the authority to revoke the ratifications of the
Council of Representatives.
So far, four rounds of elections have been held in Bahrain, in 1973,
2002, 2006, 2010. However, based on the election law, the majority
Shia population can only have 18 seats in the parliament. The people
again protested against this during the recent popular uprising,
and 18 Shia lawmakers resigned their posts. The election was also
boycotted by the people.
Kuwait
Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy and has the oldest directly
elected parliament among the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.
Legislative power is vested in the Emir and the National Assembly
in accordance with the Constitution. The Emir of Kuwait can dissolve
the National Assembly and call a national election, or, in cases of
national emergency, can dismiss the National Assembly outright and
assume supreme authority over the country.
The National Assembly consists of 50 elected members, who are chosen
in elections held every four years. Any amendment to the Constitution
can be proposed by the Emir, but it needs to be approved by more
than two-thirds of the members of the National Assembly before being
implemented.
There have been several conflicts between the emir, the government,
and the National Assembly over various policies. The National Assembly
was suspended from 1976 to 1981, from 1986 to 1991, and from May 1999
to July 1999, due to irresolvable conflicts between some members of
the government and the Assembly. The Assembly was dissolved again
in May 2009 by the emir, leading to the resignation of the prime
minister. Nationwide elections were held on May 16, 2009.
Until 2005, women had no right to participate in the parliamentary
elections. In the elections on May 16, 2009, 16 female candidates
contested for 50 seats for a four-year term. Four female candidates
won seats and became Kuwait's first female lawmakers.
Oman
Oman is an absolute monarchy. The head of state and government is the
hereditary sultan, Qaboos bin Said Al Said. He rose to power after
overthrowing his father, Said bin Taimur, in a palace coup in 1970.
In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected council, the
Consultative Assembly of Oman. It had advisory roles until 2011,
when Sultan Qaboos decided to give legislative powers to the council,
allowing the newly elected parliament to question ministers, propose
laws, and suggest changes to government regulations.
The Council of Oman is a bicameral parliament, made up of members of
the State Council and Consultation Council as stipulated in Article
58 of the Basic Law of the State. It is considered to be the main
parliament in Oman. It assists the government in drawing up the
general policies of the state. The Council meets, at the request of
Sultan Qaboos, to study and discuss matters raised by him, making
all its decisions on the basis of a majority vote. Sultan Qaboos
addresses all the members of this Council on an annual basis. There
are 15 women members (14 of whom are in the State Council) among the
167 members of the parliament.
Oman's State Consultative Council, established in 1981, consists
of 55 appointed representatives of government, the private sector,
and regional interests.
Until recent years, only a limited number of citizens were allowed
to participate in elections. There is no active political party in
the country.
Jordan
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with an
appointed government. The reigning monarch is the chief executive
and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The King exercises
his executive authority through the prime minister and the Council
of Ministers or cabinet. The King signs and executes all laws.
The parliament consists of two Chambers: The Chamber of Deputies
(Majlis al-Nuwab) and the Senate (Majlis al-Ayan, literally Assembly
of Notables). The Senate has 60 senators, all of whom are directly
appointed by the King, while the Chamber of Deputies/House of
Representatives has 120 elected members representing 12 constituencies.
The Constitution does not provide a strong system of checks and
balances within which the Jordanian parliament can assert its role
in relationship to the monarch. During the suspension of parliament
between 2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II's power was
demonstrated with the passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of these
laws dealt with election law and were seen to reduce the power of
parliament.
Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the King and
can be reappointed.
Syria
The recent amendment to the Constitution of Syria provides a better
position for parliament in the country. The People's Council (Majlis
al-Sha'ab) is Syria's legislative authority. It has 250 members
elected for a four-year term in 15 multi-seat constituencies. The
presidential candidate is appointed by the parliament and needs to
be confirmed for a seven-year term in a referendum.
Parliamentary elections were held in Syria on April 22, 2007.
According to results released on April 26, 2007, the National
Progressive Front won 169 seats, while independents won the other 81
seats. Turnout was 56.12 percent of the 11.96 million eligible voters,
and 30 female candidates were elected, exactly as many as in 2003.
A constitutional referendum was held in Syria on February 26, 2012.
The new Constitution would set a limit of two seven-year terms for
future presidents and also removed Article 8 of the Constitution of
Syria, which stated, "The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party leads the state
and society." The text eliminates the Ba'ath party monopoly over the
political life of Syria.
Iraq
In 2003, Saddam Hussein was forcibly removed from power during the
Iraq war. In March 2004, a governing council set up by the Coalition
Provisional Authority signed an interim constitution, which called
for the election of a transitional National Assembly no later than
the end of January 2005.
Elections for the transitional National Assembly (Al
Jamiya-Al-Wataniya) took place on January 30, 2005. The 275-member
National Assembly was a parliament created under the Transitional
Law during the occupation of Iraq. It was the first free election in
Iraq's history, with a fair representation of all groups.
The new law has increased the size of the council from 275 to 325
members, equal to one seat per 100,000 citizens, as stipulated in
the Constitution of Iraq.
Under the permanent Constitution approved on October 15, 2005,
legislative authority is vested in two bodies, the Council of
Representatives and the Council of Union.
The Council of Representatives of Iraq has the same name in Arabic
(Majlis al-Nuwab) as the main elected body of representatives in Iraq.
It is currently composed of 325 seats and meets in Baghdad inside
the International Zone (Green Zone).
The Council of Union or Federation Council (Majlis al-Ittihad)
will consist of representatives from Iraq's regions. Its precise
composition and responsibilities are not defined in the Constitution
and will be determined by the Council of Representatives.
Other countries of the region
In other countries neighboring Iran, such as Afghanistan, elections
have been held under the control of the occupation forces, and the
tightened security measures adopted by officials have prevented sound
elections from being held for parliament.
Pakistan and Turkey both have powerful parliaments, and there is
always considerable competition for parliamentary seats in these
countries. However, the presidents of the two countries have the
authority to dissolve parliament and military officials often interfere
in politics.
The latest developments in the Arab world and the popular uprisings
in certain countries, such as Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya have paved
the way for greater participation by the people and political parties
in politics and the establishment of parliaments, which can have a
positive impact on the destiny of the people.
From: Baghdasarian