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WAR AND GENOCIDE: THE GALLIPOLI/DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN AND THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE
By MassisPost
Updated: June 16, 2014
By Alan Whitehorn
The Entente naval bombardments of the Dardanelles Straits in February
and March and later the amphibious landings at Gallipoli on April
25, 1915 were two interrelated military deployments that gravely
threatened the survival of the Ottoman empire. These military battles,
in turn, are linked to the Young Turk regime's draconian decision to
arrest several hundred Armenian community and political leaders in
Constantinople on April 24, an act that was an opening phase of the
Armenian Genocide.
In WW I there were several major battle fronts: Western Europe, Eastern
Europe, the Near (Middle) East, and the Caucasus Mountains. In the
East, Russia, as the major ally of Britain and France, was battling
Germany, Austro-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire. Russia's troops
were engaged in combat from the Baltic Sea in the North, through
Eastern Europe, to the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains in the
South. The Ottoman-held strategically key Bosporus Straits, linking
the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, were crucial for supplying
Russia with munitions and supplies. However, from the outset of the
war, the Straits had been closed. The British and French fleets blocked
the Dardanelles Straits at the Western end, while the Ottoman empire
mined and controlled the Straits elsewhere.
For a number of British and other Entente strategists, the Ottoman
empire was perceived to be the weak link in the German-centered
military alliance. Winston Churchill, the First Lord of the
British Admiralty, was a forceful advocate of attempting a bold
naval maneuver to break through the lines of Ottoman naval mines,
destroy the shoreline fortresses along the Dardanelles, and sail up
the Straits swiftly and decisively to capture the Ottoman capital of
Constantinople. In so doing, the strategists expected to be able to
knock the Ottoman empire out of the war and strike a key blow against
Germany. Drawing upon an unrivalled history of centuries of dominating
the oceans of the world, the British fleet seemed more than capable
of achieving such a bold and daring naval task.
>From February onwards, the British and French fleets commenced
their naval bombardments and later sought to penetrate the lines of
floating mines. As a result, a state of great apprehension existed in
Constantinople amongst the Young Turk leadership. Plans were made to
abandon the capital city, if need be. However, after several Entente
warships were sunk by mines, the British naval commanders paused, as
they were unwilling to suffer the loss of more major warships. They
opted not to proceed with the operation by sea alone. Instead, they
chose to await for the mounting of a complex amphibious landing at
the rugged shores of Gallipoli.
Preparations to assemble the troops, equipment and supplies were
substantial and had been underway for considerable time. Troops
had been gathered in various locations on the Mediterranean Sea and
eventually were forwarded onto islands near the Dardanelles.
Increasingly, it was clear to Ottoman and German military officials
that a large landing was imminent, although they did not know the
exact location. Two hundred Entente ships and about 75,000 troops
finally left the port of Mudros on April 23. It was the date they
were initially scheduled to land, but were, in fact, delayed due to
poor weather conditions. Two days later on April 25. British, French,
Australian, and New Zealand troops landed on the Gallipoli peninsula
that guarded the entrance to the Dardanelles. An epic new land front
was now opened.
In between the night that the Entente fleet had left Mudros and the
day prior to their military landings in Gallipoli took place, the
Young Turk regime rapidly implemented one of the opening phases of the
Armenian Genocide. Working with already drawn up lists of the names of
prominent Armenians, the police and military arrested several hundred
Armenian community and political leaders in Constantinople throughout
the night of April 24th. It was one day before the British and allied
landings at Gallipoli. War and genocide are often intertwined and
this was particularly evident during the hours between April 24 and
April 25. Would the Armenian community leaders have been arrested at
that time if the Entente ships and troops had not been about to invade?
Certainly, the Armenian community was already being targeted by the
Young Turk nationalist regime. But the secrecy, violence, and sense
of urgency of major wartime threats made committing such genocidal
deeds more feasible.
Many books and articles written about the military battles at Gallipoli
note the substantial number of military casualties on both sides. For
Australians and New Zealanders these days of battle are heroically
identified with ANZAC Day, a day of national mourning and pride. For
Turkish citizens, it is a battle that saw a rare military victory
in WW I and the emergence of a charismatic Turkish officer Mustafa
Kemal who rallied his troops in defence of the empire and who would
go on to become Ataturk, the founding President of the Republic of
Turkey. Military histories often focus on brilliant commanding officers
and brave, often suffering, soldiers, but usually offer less on the
societal context of the war. However, in the era of modern 'total
war' where civilian targets were seen as a key part of a strategy for
victory, incomplete accounts of the totality of war are insufficient.
In most of the writings about Gallipoli, civilian deportations and
casualties are rarely mentioned. Even more disappointing is the
failure to make the important link that the Gallipoli/Dardanelles
campaigns had to one of the key phases of the Armenian Genocide -
a genocide that would lead to the death of approximately 1,500,000
Armenians. The stark fact is that the number of naval and army
personnel who were wounded and died in the Dardanelles and Gallipoli
campaigns pales in comparison to the number of civilians who were
arrested, starved, tortured, and died in the Armenian Genocide -
a genocide that gained significant momentum coinciding with the
Entente landings at Gallipoli. For the Young Turk dictatorship the
two events were linked in key ways. Amidst foreign military peril
and possible Entente military occupation of Constantinople, there
was swift and deadly action to target the Armenian Christian ethnic
minority for genocide.
******
Alan is an emeritus professor of political science at the Royal
Military College of Canada and author of Return to Armenia: Veradardz
depi Hayastan.
http://massispost.com/2014/06/war-and-genocide-the-gallipolidardanelles-campaign-and-the-armenian-genocide/
By MassisPost
Updated: June 16, 2014
By Alan Whitehorn
The Entente naval bombardments of the Dardanelles Straits in February
and March and later the amphibious landings at Gallipoli on April
25, 1915 were two interrelated military deployments that gravely
threatened the survival of the Ottoman empire. These military battles,
in turn, are linked to the Young Turk regime's draconian decision to
arrest several hundred Armenian community and political leaders in
Constantinople on April 24, an act that was an opening phase of the
Armenian Genocide.
In WW I there were several major battle fronts: Western Europe, Eastern
Europe, the Near (Middle) East, and the Caucasus Mountains. In the
East, Russia, as the major ally of Britain and France, was battling
Germany, Austro-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire. Russia's troops
were engaged in combat from the Baltic Sea in the North, through
Eastern Europe, to the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains in the
South. The Ottoman-held strategically key Bosporus Straits, linking
the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, were crucial for supplying
Russia with munitions and supplies. However, from the outset of the
war, the Straits had been closed. The British and French fleets blocked
the Dardanelles Straits at the Western end, while the Ottoman empire
mined and controlled the Straits elsewhere.
For a number of British and other Entente strategists, the Ottoman
empire was perceived to be the weak link in the German-centered
military alliance. Winston Churchill, the First Lord of the
British Admiralty, was a forceful advocate of attempting a bold
naval maneuver to break through the lines of Ottoman naval mines,
destroy the shoreline fortresses along the Dardanelles, and sail up
the Straits swiftly and decisively to capture the Ottoman capital of
Constantinople. In so doing, the strategists expected to be able to
knock the Ottoman empire out of the war and strike a key blow against
Germany. Drawing upon an unrivalled history of centuries of dominating
the oceans of the world, the British fleet seemed more than capable
of achieving such a bold and daring naval task.
>From February onwards, the British and French fleets commenced
their naval bombardments and later sought to penetrate the lines of
floating mines. As a result, a state of great apprehension existed in
Constantinople amongst the Young Turk leadership. Plans were made to
abandon the capital city, if need be. However, after several Entente
warships were sunk by mines, the British naval commanders paused, as
they were unwilling to suffer the loss of more major warships. They
opted not to proceed with the operation by sea alone. Instead, they
chose to await for the mounting of a complex amphibious landing at
the rugged shores of Gallipoli.
Preparations to assemble the troops, equipment and supplies were
substantial and had been underway for considerable time. Troops
had been gathered in various locations on the Mediterranean Sea and
eventually were forwarded onto islands near the Dardanelles.
Increasingly, it was clear to Ottoman and German military officials
that a large landing was imminent, although they did not know the
exact location. Two hundred Entente ships and about 75,000 troops
finally left the port of Mudros on April 23. It was the date they
were initially scheduled to land, but were, in fact, delayed due to
poor weather conditions. Two days later on April 25. British, French,
Australian, and New Zealand troops landed on the Gallipoli peninsula
that guarded the entrance to the Dardanelles. An epic new land front
was now opened.
In between the night that the Entente fleet had left Mudros and the
day prior to their military landings in Gallipoli took place, the
Young Turk regime rapidly implemented one of the opening phases of the
Armenian Genocide. Working with already drawn up lists of the names of
prominent Armenians, the police and military arrested several hundred
Armenian community and political leaders in Constantinople throughout
the night of April 24th. It was one day before the British and allied
landings at Gallipoli. War and genocide are often intertwined and
this was particularly evident during the hours between April 24 and
April 25. Would the Armenian community leaders have been arrested at
that time if the Entente ships and troops had not been about to invade?
Certainly, the Armenian community was already being targeted by the
Young Turk nationalist regime. But the secrecy, violence, and sense
of urgency of major wartime threats made committing such genocidal
deeds more feasible.
Many books and articles written about the military battles at Gallipoli
note the substantial number of military casualties on both sides. For
Australians and New Zealanders these days of battle are heroically
identified with ANZAC Day, a day of national mourning and pride. For
Turkish citizens, it is a battle that saw a rare military victory
in WW I and the emergence of a charismatic Turkish officer Mustafa
Kemal who rallied his troops in defence of the empire and who would
go on to become Ataturk, the founding President of the Republic of
Turkey. Military histories often focus on brilliant commanding officers
and brave, often suffering, soldiers, but usually offer less on the
societal context of the war. However, in the era of modern 'total
war' where civilian targets were seen as a key part of a strategy for
victory, incomplete accounts of the totality of war are insufficient.
In most of the writings about Gallipoli, civilian deportations and
casualties are rarely mentioned. Even more disappointing is the
failure to make the important link that the Gallipoli/Dardanelles
campaigns had to one of the key phases of the Armenian Genocide -
a genocide that would lead to the death of approximately 1,500,000
Armenians. The stark fact is that the number of naval and army
personnel who were wounded and died in the Dardanelles and Gallipoli
campaigns pales in comparison to the number of civilians who were
arrested, starved, tortured, and died in the Armenian Genocide -
a genocide that gained significant momentum coinciding with the
Entente landings at Gallipoli. For the Young Turk dictatorship the
two events were linked in key ways. Amidst foreign military peril
and possible Entente military occupation of Constantinople, there
was swift and deadly action to target the Armenian Christian ethnic
minority for genocide.
******
Alan is an emeritus professor of political science at the Royal
Military College of Canada and author of Return to Armenia: Veradardz
depi Hayastan.
http://massispost.com/2014/06/war-and-genocide-the-gallipolidardanelles-campaign-and-the-armenian-genocide/